General Description

Tall fescue is a deep-rooted, perennial bunchgrass. Although it is considered a cool season grass and is adapted to cool and humid climates, tall fescue can tolerate more heat than other cool season grasses. It has an extensive coarse, dense root system and short rhizomes. Longevity is extremely variable and dependent on variety. It is similar to meadow fescue but is distinguished by having wider, less glossy leaves. 

Tall fescue has stems that grow to a height of over 100 cm (39 in). They are smooth, semi-erect, and fairly thick. Leaves (12 mm wide) are mostly basal, with blades that are flat, dark green and hairless. The leaves are shiny & waxy and resist drought somewhat; also making tall fescue a bit more challenging to cure for hay. Seed heads develop with 3 to 10 flowers per spikelet. Tall fescue is cross-pollinated and the seed shatters easily.

Endophytes are a fungus that can live within tall fescue plants improving the plant. However, endophytes can produce a toxin (ergovaline) harmful to livestock and wildlife. The toxin restricts blood flow, which often shows as lameness and then sloughing of feet (‘fescue foot’) or the loss of extremities such as the tip of the tail and/or eat. Further, endophytes can lead to reproductive issues, including abortions. The turf-type varieties most often carry the fungus in the seed/plants, which then pass it on to the seed it produces. Forage-type varieties with low-endophyte levels are best utilized for livestock production. Feed should be tested when in doubt.

Type

Tame grass.

Origin

Central Europe, North Africa. Hardier varieties developed in North America.

Longevity

At least 5 years. Persistence is dependent on variety.

Use

Pasture, hay, sailage, stockpiled. Forage varieties with noted winter hardiness should be used. Turf-type varieties are grown for seed production but are not suitable for high forage yield and quality.

Optimal Time of Use

Spring, summer, fall, winter. Hay tall fescue by early heading. Regrowth may be grazed or stockpiled. Tall fescue can be continually or rotationally grazed. Leave at least 10 cm (4 in) for substantial regrowth to occur. Basal leaf growth develops from new tillers throughout the season. Begins growing a little later than other grass- manage accordingly. Good for summer grazing or stockpiling for fall and early winter grazing as it maintains quality well after fall frosts and stands erect through light snowfall.

Recovery After Use

Palatability/Nutritional Value

Good palatability in vegetative stages. Tall fescue has an average total digestible nutrient (TDN) level of 59% and crude protein of 9-12% mid-summer. Endophytes in turf varieties can be a problem for livestock. Purchase endophyte-free seed and test forages from non-endophyte free stands.

Drought Tolerance

Moderate tolerance. Recovers quickly.

Flooding Tolerance

Withstands 2-5 weeks of spring flooding and tolerates wet or waterlogged soil often spring through fall.

Winter Hardiness

Fair to good tolerance depending on the variety. Select varieties noted for hardiness. Winter is highly dependent on variety, snow cover conditions, drought, and breaks in dormancy.

Soil Texture Preference

Prefers deep, moist, silty to clayey soils. Sub-irrigated sites may also be suitable. 

Erosion Control

Moderate erosion control.

Salinity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance. Good tolerance to salinity makes it a good choice for irrigated saline pasture land.

Acidity Tolerance

High tolerance. Tolerates soil pHs as low as 4.7 but yields better on slightly acidic to neutral soils.

Alkalinity Tolerance

High tolerance.

Seeds per kg

454,000 seeds/kg (206,000 seeds/lb)

Suggested Mixtures

Ease of Establishment

Strong seedling vigour helps tall fescue establish relatively easily, especially if competition and soil fertility are managed.

Competitiveness

Once established, tall fescue is competitive. Potentially invasive depending on location and variety. In some habitats in the northern US tall fescue, especially those varieties with endophytes, are considered invasive and persistent.

Management Considerations

General Description

Reed canarygrass is a well-adapted, long-lived, cool season, perennial native grass with many tame varieties. It grows best in wet areas but also can tolerate some moist upland areas. This grass often grows on wet sites, and can indicate high soil moisture conditions where periodic flooding can occur for extended periods of time. Extensive sod-forming root systems are produced by crowns below the soil surface. The plant may appear to be bunched but actually produces large diameter, short rhizomes, which in turn produce new shoots and roots. 

Stems are coarse and erect, growing up to 200 cm (79 in) tall. Leaves are pale green, large, flat, and wide up to 20 mm (3/4 in) wide. The spikelets of the seed head cluster alternately up the stem, producing purplish flowers. Seed shatters very easily, and germination ability declines soon after being shed. Select a tame reed canarygrass variety with low alkaloid levels for the best palatability and animal health. 

Type

Native grass. Tame grass (introduced cultivars).

Origin

Native to North America. Varieties used in Canada originate from both North America and Europe. It is thought the hybridization of introduced and North American types has produced aggressive plants in central and western North America.

Longevity

Use

Pasture, hay, reclamation. As a high yielding grass with good regrowth it may be hayed in a two-cut system or grazed after haying.

Optimal Time of Use

Spring, summer, fall. Established stands can be grazed several times during the season, if kept in vegetative growth stages. Easily managed under rotational grazing, and more difficult to manage well under continuous grazing. As soon as reed canarygrass heads out, stems mature and become coarse causing a sharp decline in palatability. Hay at boot to heading to allow for quality and regrowth for a two-cut haying system.

Recovery After Use

Palatability/Nutritional Value

Crude protein of 12 to 15% and digestibility ranges from 55 to 65% early in the season, but protein and digestibility drop dramatically later in the season. Timing of use is important with reed canarygrass- in the vegetative stage palatability is high. As stems develop palatability decreases drastically and quality falls. Use alkaloid-free varieties registered in Canada to avoid problems with livestock grazing and alkaloid toxicity.

Drought Tolerance

Moderate tolerance.

Flooding Tolerance

Withstands 5 weeks or more of flooding and grows well in waterlogged soils. It is best adapted to wet areas but can grow on moist upland areas.

Winter Hardiness

Good hardiness. Improved by allowing 4 weeks rest from grazing before killing frosts.

Soil Texture Preference

Erosion Control

High erosion control. Thick sod and high competitive ability make this a good candidate for erosion control, especially in waterways and wetter areas.

Salinity Tolerance

Slight tolerance.

Acidity Tolerance

High tolerance. Tolerates soil pH values as low as 5.0.

Alkalinity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance.

Seeds per kg

1,186,000 seeds/kg (538,000 seeds/lb)

Suggested Mixtures

Seed with moisture tolerant legumes for hay or grazing. Often seeded as a monoculture in floodplains or riparian areas. Mixes will with bird’s foot trefoil, red clover for wet areas, and meadow brome grass and alfalfa for undulating topography.

Ease of Establishment

Since reed canarygrass seedlings cannot tolerate flooding, mid-summer seeding is optimal when soil moisture levels are lower and the chance of flooding is reduced. Stands can be thin in early years, but eventually fill in from strong rhizomatous growth. Young stands should not be grazed until they are well established and have developed a dense sod. When establishing new stands, use of pedigreed seed rather than common seed will reduce problems with alkaloids by ensuring that the alkaloid-free varieties are “true to variety”.

Competitiveness

Low competitiveness in early years, but highly competitive and aggressive once it is established. Invasiveness in many situations is considered moderate, as it can escape from pastures and spread into riparian areas, waterways, and wetlands.

Management Considerations

Seek out newer, alkaloid-free varieties for forage uses, or carefully manage the grazing period to avoid alkaloid toxicity in animals. Watch for alkaloid issues in stands established before the development of newer alkaloid-free varieties, especially during drought stress. Fencing wetter areas with reed canarygrass separately can help ensure that these areas are grazed properly to stay vegetative for maximum palatability. Older upland stands can be occasionally spiked, coultered, or knifed to cut roots and rhizomes and stimulate new growth.

General Description

Meadow foxtail is a long-lived, early maturing, bunch grass. It spreads by seed, not rhizomes. The seeds are light to medium grey, and can be transported to a new location by wind or water. It is highly adapted to moist riparian areas, but can become invasive. Creeping foxtail is a similar species, but has aggressive creeping roots and seeds are generally black in colour. The two species can cross.

Meadow foxtail stems usually grow less than 1 m tall (3.3 feet), with leaves up stems. Leaves are smooth and soft. They are generally less than 8 mm wide (narrower than creeping foxtail leaves). As meadow foxtail self seeds it becomes a mat of sod. Meadow foxtail heads are a similar shape to timothy. Meadow foxtail is commonly seeded on peat and muskeg sites, sloughs, flood plains with very high water tables and other wet areas.

Type

Tame grass.

Origin

Europe and Asia.

Longevity

At least 20 years.

Use

Pasture, hay. Early maturing can cause difficulties in timely use of meadow foxtail. Grazing after haying is an option for a meadow foxtail stand.

Optimal Time of Use

Spring, summer. Meadow foxtail can be continually or rotationally grazed, but responds best to rotational grazing. Meadow foxtail grows early and should be hayed or grazed before flowering during mid-June (area dependant). Meadow foxtail can serve as an early season grass (lengthens grazing season at the start of the year). Hay and graze to avoid seed head formation and consequent reduction in palatability. 

Recovery After Use

Requires a minimum 45-60 days of recovery after use. Meadow foxtail recovers very quickly after grazing when moisture is available. Utilize early to a height of approximately 10 cm (4 in) to keep vegetative.

Palatability/Nutritional Value

Meadow foxtail is palatable and nutritious when vegetative, but quality declines rapidly as plants mature. Grazing livestock select against mature meadow foxtail when other species are present in the pasture.

Annual Precipitation min/max (mm)

460mm/ 1500mm

Drought Tolerance

Poor tolerance. Requires moist soils.

Flooding Tolerance

Withstands two to five weeks of spring flooding, or ongoing wet soils. It grows best on wet soils found in and around wetlands and lowlands.

Winter Hardiness

Good to excellent hardiness.

Soil Texture Preference

Moist clay-loam to clay soils. Moisture is needed to maintain meadow foxtail.

Erosion Control

Moderate ability to control erosion. Meadow foxtail is useful for stabilizing waterways and banks, but its sod is inferior to reed canary grass for this purpose. Meadow foxtail has the ability to displace native vegetation in waterways through self seeding.

Salinity Tolerance

Not tolerant to salinity.

Acidity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance. Varieties with higher tolerances are available.

Alkalinity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance.

Seeds per kg

897,000 seeds/kg (407,000 seeds/lb)

Suggested Mixtures

Often grown as a pure stand due to its very early maturity and suitability for wet areas. Meadow foxtail is effective in a mix with alsike clover, or other competitive legumes such as alfalfa or red clover. The mix should be managed to keep meadow foxtail in the vegetative stage (palatable).

Ease of Establishment

Meadow foxtail is easy to establish with sufficient moisture. Allow enough time between seeding and fall for growth to be winter hardy. Seed is tolerant of flooding. Plants readily establish from self-seeding.

Competitiveness

Meadow foxtail is very competitive in riparian habitats. Seeds easily spread by wind and water.

Management Considerations

Management of meadow foxtail to stop heading is important so that the forage is useful (palatable) for grazing or haying. If possible, fence meadow foxtail into a separate paddock to be grazed as needed to manage for palatability. Caution needs to be taken if soils are saturated to prevent soil compaction. Stands of meadow foxtail tend to thicken as some seeds set yearly. Meadow foxtail can move into riparian areas so care should be taken when deciding on seeding riparian margins.

General Description

Meadow fescue is a perennial bunch grass suited to higher precipitation areas, but lacks longevity due to poorer winter hardiness and susceptibility to heavy grazing. It is very closely related to tall fescue, and can be hard to distinguish. Generally, meadow fescue is less persistent, shorter, and finer leaved. It has the ability to cross with perennial and annual ryegrass.

Stems grow up to 1 m (40 in) tall. Leaves are mostly basal, with blades that are flat, dark green and have veins running down them. The leaf undersides are glossy and the edges are rough. Seed heads develop with 6 to 10 flowers per spikelet. Meadow fescue is cross-pollinated (and can cross with grasses) and the seed shatters easily.

Type

Tame grass.

Origin

Europe.

Longevity

At least 5 years.

Use

Pasture, hay, stockpiled. Meadow fescue is best used as pasture as growth is mainly basal.

Optimal Time of Use

Spring, summer, fall, winter. Meadow fescue has been replaced mainly by new tall fescue varieties that have equal adaptability and more production and longevity. Hay by heading. Meadow fescue is best rotationally grazed but can be continually with care. Leave at least 10 cm (4 in) for regrowth to occur. Good for summer grazing or stockpiling for fall and early winter grazing as it maintains quality well after fall frosts. 

Recovery After Use

Requires a minimum 45-60 days of recovery after use. If hayed, meadow fescue can be grazed or stockpiled thereafter.

Palatability/Nutritional Value

Meadow fescue has an average total digestible nutrient (TDN) level of 61% and crude protein level of 12.5% in the vegetative state. Meadow fescue has fair palatability. Meadow fescue remains green into the fall.

Annual Precipitation min/max (mm)

500mm minimum

Drought Tolerance

Moderate tolerance. It is less drought tolerant than tall fescue.

Flooding Tolerance

Withstands 2-5 weeks of spring flooding. It withstands wet soils season long.

Winter Hardiness

Fair hardiness. Meadow fescue longevity is limited by winter hardiness.

Soil Texture Preference

Meadow fescue is best suited to moist or wet clay-loam to clay soils, but will grow on light textured soils with high moisture. Moisture is meadow fescue’s limiting factor.

Erosion Control

Moderate erosion control. Can be used as an initial species in waterways or channels to prevent erosion as it does not impede water movement.

Salinity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance.

Acidity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance.

Alkalinity Tolerance

Low tolerance.

Seeds per kg

507,000 seeds/kg (230,000 seeds/lb)

Suggested Mixtures

Meadow fescue is compatible in mixes. Species include alsike clover, birdsfoot trefoil, timothy and bromegrasses.

Ease of Establishment

Meadow fescue seedlings can establish well in the first season when competition is managed. It is noted to winterkill easily during the establishment year.

Competitiveness

Meadow fescue has moderate competitive ability. Overall, its longevity is limited with cold winter conditions.

Management Considerations

Allow for adequate rest following defoliation. Cold hardiness is its major limitation making it a grass not frequently used in Western Canada. May serve well as a short rotation, good producing grass species for late season grazing.

General Description

Creeping foxtail is a long-lived, early maturing, rhizomatous grass. It is highly adapted to moist riparian areas, but can become invasive due to its longevity, prolific seed production, ease of seed spread (wind/water) and creeping ability.

Creeping foxtail stems can grow to 1 m tall (3.3 ft), with leaves up stems. Leaves are smooth on top and rough beneath. They are generally 6-12 mm wide. The creeping rhizomes are very extensive and can form a thick sod quickly. As a sod thickens, generally less seed heads are produced. Creeping foxtail heads are a similar shape to timothy. The seeds are black and hairy when mature, and can be transported to a new location by wind or water.  

Meadow foxtail is a similar species, but does not have creeping roots and seeds are generally light grey in colour. The two species can cross.

Type

Tame grass.

Origin

Eastern Europe, Eurasia.

Longevity

At least 20 years.

Use

Hay, pasture.

Optimal Time of Use

Spring, summer. Creeping foxtail can be continually or rotationally grazed but responds best to rotational grazing. Intense, small paddock grazing may be needed to force grazing. Creeping foxtail begins growth very early in the season. Hay creeping foxtail early, before flowering for the best yield and quality. Over maturity decreasing palatability is a big limitation of creeping foxtail. 

Recovery After Use

Requires a minimum 45-60 days of recovery after use. Creeping foxtail regrows quickly after use when moisture is available. May be grazed after haying.

Palatability/Nutritional Value

Creeping foxtail has an average total digestible nutrient (TDN) level of 65% and crude protein level of 14-15% in the vegetative state. Creeping foxtail is most palatable for grazing or haying prior to heading. Livestock avoid grazing maturing plants.

Annual Precipitation min/max (mm)

460 mm / 1780mm

Drought Tolerance

Poor tolerance. Requires moist soils.

Flooding Tolerance

Withstands 2-5 weeks of spring flooding. Can withstand wet or waterlogged soils year round.

Winter Hardiness

Good hardiness.

Soil Texture Preference

Creeping foxtail is adapted to loamy to clay soils that remain moist or wet throughout the growing season. It is also found on peat and muskeg soils.

Erosion Control

High erosion control ability. Creeping foxtail is effective for erosion control in high moisture areas such as streams and canals due to spreading rhizomes. It can invade waterways.

Salinity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance. Creeping foxtail has the ability to displace foxtail barley growing in wet saline areas.

Acidity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance. Creeping foxtail tolerates soil pH to 5.5.

Alkalinity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance.

Seeds per kg

1,733,000 seeds/kg (786,000 seeds/lb)

Suggested Mixtures

Creeping foxtail matures early on moist sites, thus limiting mixture possibilities. It is often seeded as a monoculture. Alsike clover may prove successful in a mix. Legumes, generally, may add quality to the stand.

Ease of Establishment

Creeping foxtail seeds are small, fluffy, and tolerant of flooding. Purchasing coated seed makes seed metering and distribution more consistent. Creeping foxtail not only has poorer seedling vigor which can make it difficult to seed in a wetter area, but seedlings need enough time between seeding and fall to become well rooted and winter hardy.

Competitiveness

Creeping foxtail is very competitive once established due to strong rhizomes. Creeping foxtail may displace native wetland vegetation including reed canary grass.

Management Considerations

Creeping foxtail seed will move along riparian areas and waterways, spreading it downstream. Management in wet areas can be difficult due to waterlogged or moist soils. Harvesting when soils are saturated may result in soil compaction. Grazing or haying creeping foxtail at the right growth stage is important due to its poor palatability after heading. It should be noted that while the USDA Plants Database praises creeping foxtail for palatability season long, within western Canada, palatability has proven to be limited unless stands are kept vegetative.

General Description

Birdsfoot trefoil is a perennial non-bloat legume. It is highly adapted to grow in a range of challenging conditions including infertile soils, soils with high acidity or poor drainage, and poorly prepared seed beds. It can persist in a long-lived stand when allowed to set seed.

It has a wide crown and taproot, intermediate in depth between alfalfa and red clover. Roots sometimes develop from older stems that have soil contact. 

The plant produces many fine stems or branches from the crown, which can grow up to 75 cm (30 in) long. Plants can be erect or prostrate. Birdsfoot trefoil has compound leaves with paired leaflets up the stalk and a single leaflet at the tip. Flowers initially form on lower branches and continue up the stem. Flowers are a brilliant yellow and found in clusters of 2 to 8. The name is derived from the way the pods form at right angles to the stem, looking like a bird’s foot. 

Type

Tame legume.

Origin

Native to Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia. Canadian varieties were developed and selected for winter hardiness.

Longevity

Less than 5 years. However, long-lived stands are found frequently where seed set is encouraged and stands are managed for improved winter survival through snow cover, litter cover, and managed grazing intensity.

Use

Pasture, hay. Best suited for pasture, especially in higher rainfall areas. Although used for hay, leaf loss after cutting and difficulty curing are noted for birdsfoot trefoil.

Optimal Time of Use

Spring, summer, fall. A full canopy of leaves and ground cover must be produced before spring grazing. The plant needs late season rest to build root carbohydrate reserves. Hay quality and yield are maximized at early bloom. May be prone to winterkill if grazed on during the winter (eg. bale grazing). 

Recovery After Use

Yield

Palatability/Nutritional Value

Drought Tolerance

Fair drought tolerance. Birdsfoot trefoil is adapted best to higher moisture soil zones, but can withstand some drought with its deep taproot.

Flooding Tolerance

Can tolerate 2-5 weeks of flooding, and tolerate wet soils throughout the year.

Winter Hardiness

Variable (poor to good). Winter survival is improved by deep snow cover and adequate rest before frost to protect the plant’s crown.

Soil Texture Preference

Adapted to moist sandy loam to clay soils. Adapted to waterlogged soils or conditions of poor fertility.

Erosion Control

Poor ability to control erosion. However, birdsfoot trefoil is well suited to grow on poor soils.

Salinity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance.

Acidity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance.

Alkalinity Tolerance

Moderate tolerance. Similar to alsike clover.

Seeds per kg

815,000 seeds/kg (370,000 seeds/lb)

Suggested Mixtures

Ease of Establishment

Birdsfoot trefoil seedlings grow slow initially but establish well under good growing conditions with use in the year following seeding. Establishment is enhanced with shallow seeding (3-6 mm/ 1/4 in), control of weeds, and seeding without a cover crop. Seedlings can have weak roots that are sensitive to shade.

Competitiveness

May be more competitive under ‘adverse’ conditions such as acidity or low fertility. Considered weedy or invasive in some regions including along roadsides, field margins, and in urban locations.

Management Considerations